Glycaemic Response of Arabic Bread

Bread remains one of the most widely consumed staple foods worldwide, with wheat flour serving as its traditional foundation. However, the widespread dependence on refined wheat-based bread has paralleled the rising prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D), partly owing to its high glycaemic index (GI), which results in rapid increases in blood glucose levels. Enhancing the nutritional quality of bread, therefore, represents an important target for dietary intervention. Developing alternative flour blends for bread production presents a potential strategy for improving glycaemic control and supporting glucose homeostasis. Accordingly, this clinical trial aims to determine whether the partial replacement of wheat flour with legume flours, including chickpea, pea, and lentil, in Arabic bread formulations can lower glycaemic responses compared with traditional Arabic wheat bread.

Inclusion Criteria: * Participants will be adults living with overweight or obesity (Body Mass Index \[BMI\] \> 25 kg/m²). * Participants will be of any gender. * Participants will be aged 18 to 65. * Participants will be from any sociodemographic background. * Participants will be able to provide informed consent. * Participants will be able to understand spoken and written English and be able to record their responses to questionnaires. Exclusion Criteria: * Those with food allergies or intolerances to any of the study ingredients, including wheat, chickpeas, lentils, or peas, will not be eligible. * Individuals with a known diagnosis of metabolic or chronic health conditions, such as diabetes, insulin resistance, hypertension, or phenylketonuria, will be excluded due to the potential impact on glycaemic control and study outcomes. * Participants with a fasting blood glucose level of above 7.0 mmol/L. * Use of medications that influence blood glucose levels (e.g., corticosteroids, antipsychotics, antiviral protease inhibitors) or substances that interfere with digestion and absorption (such as laxatives or fibre supplements) will result in exclusion. * Pregnant or breastfeeding individuals will not be included due to the physiological changes that may influence study outcomes. * Participants with implanted medical devices, including pacemakers, artificial organs, defibrillators, or joint replacements, will be excluded for safety considerations. * Anyone who has undergone major surgery or hospitalisation within the last 5 months will be deemed ineligible. * Individuals who have participated in another research study involving invasive procedures within the last 3 months will be excluded.